Dining with death

By, Adam K. Fetterman
Similar to my previous piece regarding atheism, vegetarians/vegans also get a strange reputation that does not always seem to match their experiences. For example, like the atheists, vegetarians/vegans are often accused of being arrogant and self-righteous. One would think that all vegetarians/vegans are running around telling people how to eat. Of course, there are these vegetarians/vegans (e.g. PETA), but they are a vocal minority. In actuality, it is my experience that vegetarians/vegans often try to keep quiet about their food choices for fear of ridicule. In conversations with fellow vegetarians/vegans, the same story emerges. Out to dinner with friends or family (even very open-minded friends) and a meat-eating friend or family member will bring up the vegetarian’s diet. Comments include, but are not limited to “I could never stop eating meat”, “are you sure you are getting enough protein”, “vegetarianism isn’t natural”, and my personal favorite “I didn’t climb my way to the top of the food chain to eat rabbit food”. So, it would appear, at least anecdotally, that most vegetarians and vegans are not arrogant jerks, and just want to eat their food in peace.

Similar to atheism, Terror Management Theory (TMT) would explain that vegetarians/vegans may come to be derogated by meat-eaters because they challenge a long held world-view that animals are to be eaten. This challenge may increase existential threat in which world views are defended (Greenberg & Kosloff, 2008), hence some of the comments recalled above and the links below. However, TMT can go even further to provide an idea of why vegetarians/vegans experience what they do. Another thing that can cause existential threat is thoughts of creatureliness (Cox, Goldenberg, Pyszczynski, & Weise, 2007). According to Cox and colleagues (2007), when reminded that humans are similar to other animals, people’s death thoughts increase. And, according to research on TMT, death thoughts lead to out-group derogation (Greenberg & Kosloff, 2008). Therefore, it is possible that when vegetarians/vegans are eating with meat-eaters, the meat-eaters are reminded of their creatureliness because vegetarians/vegans automatically remind them that they are eating other animals. If so, this may explain why so many vegetarians/vegans have the same experiences when dining with their meat-eating friends and family.

A blog entitled ‘The arrogance of veganism’ by Michael Ruhlman

A blog entitled ‘Something is wrong vegans’ by Steve Mooradian

Cox, C. R. et al. (2006). Disgust, creatureliness, and the accessibility of death-related thoughts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 494-507

Greenberg, J. & Kosloff, S. (2008). Terror Management Theory: Implications for understanding prejudice, stereotyping, intergroup conflict, and political attitudes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 1881-1894

Guns and aggression

By, Adam K. Fetterman
A Supreme Court decision once again sparks debate of gun control. The Court decided that citizens have the right to keep guns in all states and cities in the United States challenging some strict gun bans, like those in the Chicago area, according to the Associated Press. Guns are one of the hot-button issues that always seem to lead to great division. Some proponents argue that it is their right to own and carry guns and therefore, want to exercise that right, while others proclaim they want guns for fear of victimization. Opponents of guns argue that guns cause more harm than good and sometimes fear the people that want guns for protection.

While there are some anecdotal instances when citizens carrying guns have resulted in positive outcomes, these are quite rare. However, there has been research on the negative effects of guns. For example, Klinesmith, Kasser, and McAndrew (2006) found that interacting with guns led to increases in testosterone and aggressive behavior in males. While the aggressive behavior in the experiment, adding hot-sauce to a cup of water, is not all that reflective of real-world aggression, the effects show some increase in the willingness to harm others. There are probably not many people that would promote getting rid of guns altogether, however, some questions need to be further researched. For instance, should states and cities be able to ban guns if the area is deemed particularly aggressive? What type of people cause a threat to safety if they have access to guns? And on the other side, what are the benefits to the presence of guns?

Justices extend gun owner rights nationwide, by Mark Sherman – Associated Press

Klinesmith et al. (2006). Guns, Testosterone, and Aggression: An Experimental Test of a Mediational Hypothesis. Psychological Science, 17, 568-571.

Why flee when you can fight: the counter-evolutionary practice of bullfighting

A bullfight conjures many images, such as cheering crowds, brave matadors, and rushing bulls. A bullfighter earns respect and attention because, unlike most of the population, he dares to step into the bullring and face a bull. In the process the bullfighter asserts control over the body and controls the innate response to run and instead seeks to fight the bull. So when a bullfighter decides to run from a bull instead of fight it, albeit a natural evolutionary response, it becomes a newsworthy event.

A news report shows a video of a bullfighter who, took the traditional evolutionary route and fled from an attacking bull. Although running from bulls is a common practice for bullfighters when in a pinch, this event was particularly important. The news report explains that the bullfighter had been gored the previous year. So, after almost getting gored again by the bull the bullfighter made a run for it. This time around the bullfighter thought it best to get out and stop fighting the bull—in effect ending his career as a bullfighter.

Matsumoto and Hwang (2010) explain that the context of a bull rushing toward an individual should elicit a host of evolutionary responses.  An emotion such as fear, manifesting itself as the bullfighter running from the bull, is part of a set of responses that occur. The fact that bullfighters train to control their fear and fight the bull, the authors argue, is part of an adaptive “open system” of emotional appraisal. Thus, making bullfighting possible as a counter-evolutionary practice. On the other hand, a bullfighter that takes the evolutionary route and runs is worthy of making the news.

See more: Fleeing Matador

Matsumoto, D. & Hwang, H.S. (2010). Judging faces in context.

Getting Grandma online: Can psychology help?

By Erica Zaiser

For most of us, technology has become an integral part of our daily routine.  We use computers to send email, find old friends on Facebook, share photos, and keep up with our favorite blogs.  Nonetheless,  some people find it difficult to keep up with new lingo, gadgets, and programs that have become a staple of our workplace and home.  In particular, many elderly people are struggling to keep up with our increasing reliance on technology. However, technological advances could have potential benefits on our ever-growing older demographic.  Elderly people facing limited mobility could gain greater independence through technology and it has also been suggested that surfing the Internet can boost brain function.

In the recent issue of Current Directions in Psychological Science, Charness and Boot (2009) review evidence that although some older people may have a strong interest in using new technology, other factors like computer education, computer anxiety, and decreased cognitive functioning may impair their ability or desire to understand new technology. Furthermore, there are natural life-span changes in motivations that may make elderly interest in and use for technological advances different from the young.  The authors argue that social psychologists can and should assist those who design technology in creating products which both appeal to the elderly and take into account their changing cognitive capabilities.

The BBC reported on the development of a new computer using a desktop interface that is designed to simplify the computing experience for the elderly.  The hope is that this type of system will encourage elderly people to use the Internet and increase their computer-confidence.  This seems like a step in the right direction, although, as Boot and Charness point out, we may never be able to completely close the technology gap between the young and old.  This is because people tend to prefer technology they grew up with to those made available late in their lives.  Since technology is rapidly changing, we may always be more resistance to trying new technology as we get older, no matter how much it caters to our specific needs.

Read more: Charness, N., & Boot, W. R. (2009). Aging and Internet technology use: potential and barriers. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 18, 5.

Texting and Scare Tactics

A recent Welsh video that addresses the dangers of texting while driving has become an internet phenomenon with over 7 million views to date. The video, which will be shown in schools in this fall, features a teenager texting while driving, resulting in a graphic car crash that kills her passengers.

The creators of the ad argue that in order to capture the attention of teenagers, it is necessary for the video to be shocking and violent. However, some critics are skeptical about whether the ad will actually reduce the behavior, especially in the long-term. Health and social psychological research has looked extensively at the efficacy of fear arousing messages when it comes to changing behaviors.

In a recent article, Cameron and Chan (2008) discuss what persuasive elements may help in promoting health behaviors. It is commonly assumed that messages that evoke fear will prompt action; however, many studies have shown that highly evocative messages may actually lead to avoidance and fail to change behavior. In the health communication field, they find that fear arousing messages can be effective but only when coupled with other factors. For instance, when joined with an implementation plan, these messages have a better chance of changing behavior. Moreover, imagery may be effective in persuasive messages but only to the extent that it can directly relate the threat to the recommended plan of action.

While the commercial may be successful in garnering attention, ongoing research brings into question how effective it will be in terms of permanently changing behavior.

New York Times: Driven to Distraction

Cameron, L. D., & Chan, C. K. (2008). Designing Health Communications: Harnessing the Power of Affect, Imagery, and Self-Regulation.

Scared Stiff: Does Fear Motivate or Paralyze Us?

If you’ve seen the recent viral video discouraging us from texting while driving, or the quit-smoking commercials that feature surgeries showing organs damaged by smoking, then you may find yourself wondering if these gruesome images actually cause us to change our behavior?

Social psychologists have asked the same question and have found a variety of results. When considering the persuasiveness of a message we have to consider the message itself, the audience watching it, and the context in which it is delivered. Messages that have graphic images have been shown to be effective in producing behavior change, but only if there is a message attached to the images about what a person can do. For example, quit-smoking messages are more likely to produce a change in behavior if they are accompanied with information about smoking cessation programs or a phone number to call to get help.

In addition, characteristics of the audience have to be considered. Self-esteem has shown to be influential in determining whether a person will actually follow through on change, but it can depend on a variety of other factors as well.

Finally, we have to consider the context in which the message is received. Major catastrophic events, such as 9/11, can enact a variety of policies and changes that influence how we perceive messages. There are even more recent theories, such as Terror Management Theory, that suggest that making our own mortality salient can powerfully influence our behavior and attitudes.

Can you think of examples where threat, fear, and mortality are used as persuasive devices in order to motivate people to engage in a particular behavior? In what ways could politicians or healthcare providers, for example, make use of these findings?

Tales from Existential Oceans: Terror Management Theory and How the Awareness of Our Mortality Affects Us All

State sponsored fear

A recent police-funded counter-terrorism campaign within the United Kingdom has resulted in the appearance of large billboards encouraging members of the public to inform on their neighbours, based on the ‘suspicious’ contents of their dustbin (=trashcan).

As with similar previous campaigns, the appeal to fear made by such billboards has been heavily ridiculed by online commentators as both overly simplistic and having disturbing Orwellian overtones.

By generating a moral panic over out-groups, and so encouraging the view that differences between people should be regarded with suspicion, the campaign is widely regarded as clumsily undermining relationships between the different ethnic and cultural groups making up British society.

The public backlash is such that billboards have been both physically subvertised, as well as virtually parodied. You now even have the opportunity to create your own.

ACPO press release

Louis, W. R. (2009). Terrorism, Identity, and Conflict Management

Greenberg, J. & Kosloff, S. (2008). Terror Management Theory: Implications for Understanding Prejudice, Stereotyping, Intergroup Conflict, and Political Attitudes

Krueger, J. I. & DiDonato, T. E. (2008). Social Categorization and the Perception of Groups and Group Differences

Hornsey, M. J. (2008). Social Identity Theory and Self-categorization Theory: A Historical Review